Background on Country
of Origin
The Kurds are a diverse
ethnic group of an estimated 22 million living in the homeland known as Kurdistan,
encompassing parts of the countries of Turkey, Iran, Iraq, Syria, as well
as provinces of the former Soviet Union. Their struggle for independence has
waged for centuries, but political and ethnic divisions within the populations
have prevented them from achieving unity. Hence they remain minorities, frequently
persecuted, within the countries they live.
The area known as Kurdistan is not demarcated on the below map, but is found
in the northern areas of Iraq, and extending into the adjoining area of Turkey.
History of Immigration
The Kurds of Iraq have a long history of persecution under the Bagdhad regimes. In the mid-1970s a failed Kurdish revolution provoked thousands of Kurds of the Kurdish democratic party to flee to Iran, and they were eventually resettled to the United States and abroad.
Similarly, after the
defeat of Iraqi forces in the Iran-Iraq War of 1988, Kurds in northern Iraq
were particularly scapegoated for annihilation, and biological and chemical
weapons ostensibly maintained for use against the Iranians were turned against
them. A systematic plan, the Anfal, to destroy villages controlled by Kurdish
resistors, known as peshmerga, was launched by Saddam Hussein in 1988. The
worst of these attacks came on the Kurdish settlement of Halabja, resulting
in thousands of casualties and forcing 60,000 refugees to flee to the Turkish
border.
At the Turkish border,
these refugees were forcibly routed by the Turkish authorities to four primary
refugee camps set up inside Turkey: Diyarbakir, Silopi, Mardin, and Mush.
Here they remained for an average of two years or more, some up to five years,
under variable but frequently severe conditions until the international community
selected some for resettlement. Many others were pushed back to Iraq.
A third, larger wave
of Iraqi Kurds fled Iraq to Turkey and Iran immediately after the failed Kurdish
uprising during the Gulf War, in early 1991 T. his group of an estimated 1.5
million refugees in the mountains of the Turkish border evoked a large humanitarian
relief effort, culminating in the resettlement of some to the West beginning
in the Spring of 1993.
A fourth, most recent
wave of Iraqi Kurds were evacuated by United States forces from Arbil following
an Iraqi army incursion and internal political strife in northern Iraq in
the Fall of 1996. These refugees were airlifted directly to Guam, where they
received a few months of orientation prior to their resettlement in the United
States.
Culture
The Kurds on the whole
come from mountainous regions where they practiced pastoralism of sheep and
goats and tended small farms, growing mostly wheat, rice, and fruit. While
many of the Kurds had rural origins, the cities like Dohuk, Arbil, Suleimania,
and Kirkuk are growing from refugees displaced from their villages due to
warfare. There are also sizeable oil reserves in Kurdistan, representing potential
wealth which adds to the political infighting in the region. Many of the adult
men have been involved in the fighting; these soldiers are known as peshmerga,
or freedom fighters.
Communication
While there are cultural
similarities which all Kurds share, especially historical factors, there are
also many differences among Kurds. For one, there are two dialects of the
Kurdish language: Sorani and Kurmanji (Bardini), which are mostly mutually-intelligible.
Most Iraqi and Iranian Kurds speak Sorani; Kurmanji is the dialect of Dohuk
Province in Iraq (where most United States-resettled Kurds originated) as
well as most of Turkey, Syria, and former Soviet Union. Most Kurds are also
bilingual in the lingua franca of the country in which they live, for example,
Arabic in Iraq, Turkish in Turkey, and Farsi in Iran. Most Kurds are literate
in their own language, but only those with more advanced education, restricted
generally to males, can read and write Arabic, Turkish, or Farsi.
It is appropriate to
make eye contact when speaking with Kurds. When greeting, handshakes are usually
appropriate between and within the sexes, and a two-handed handshake is considered
especially warm and polite. The exception here is that it is inappropriate
for a man to shake the hand of an elderly women. In Kurdistan, and between
very close friends or relatives in the U.S., men may greet each other with
a kiss to both cheeks. For the most devout Muslims, especially men, one is
not to be touched by anyone, including a spouse, after one has ritualy purified
oneself prior to the daily prayers.
In addition to linguistic
traits, Kurds have also adopted (or were forced to adopt) over the years other
cultural traits from the surrounding dominant cultures where they live. For
example, Kurds in Turkey primarily wear the style of dress of Turks.
Religion
In terms of religion,
most Kurds adhere to the Sunni tradition of Islam, which is widely practiced
throughout Iraq and Turkey. A few Kurds in Iran practice Shiite Islam. In
general, the status of Kurdish women is higher than in other Islamic cultures;
women are not veiled, are more free to associate with men, and they may even
occupy political offices. In addition to Islam, there are also converts to
Judaism and Christianity throughout Kurdistan. Islam is discussed in the chapter
on religions.
Social Relations
Kurds tend to be strongly clannish in their social organization, organized around a male descendent. This is especially true of those descended from important political figures; overall there is much reverence paid to ancestors. Villages are often identified along extended family lines. To protect clan resources, intravillage marriage is preferred; in fact, first cousin marriage is common. Polygamy of up to four wives is allowed by Islamic as well as cultural mores, but is not common. Marriages were frequently arranged in the past, although this custom is beginning to wane. However, family agreement is mandatory, and the exchange of goods, including bride-price, and other ceremonial visits are still practiced according to tradition. "Exchange" marriages are also common in poorer families to save the expenses: a son and daughter from one family marry a daughter and son in another family. After marriage, the woman comes to live with the groom's family.
Women retain their names
at marriage, but children are named after the male line. Specifically, children
traditionally receive as a last name the paternal grandfather's given name.
It should be noted that some resettled refugees are now adopting American-styled
naming at marriage and birth; some are even involved in legal name-changing.
There is a strong emphasis on large families, and a preference toward males,
at least in Kurdistan; not only is birth control considered amoral according
to Islamic law, but having a large number of offspring guarantees the family
line and provides workers for the homestead.
There are several important
holidays in Kurdish culture. For one, the birth of a child is celebrated by
a feast given by the parents and their family. Newborn boys are typically
circumcised within the first month or two. Birthdays are not widely observed,
except perhaps for U.S.-born children. The most important holiday is Kurdish
New Year (Newroz), on March 21, celebrating an ancient Kurdish legend marking
the independence of Kurds. Kurds also observe the religious period of Ramadan,
although the strictness of adherence to the rules on fasting vary considerably
according to their orthodoxy.
Politically, Kurds are
fractionated into several political parties. In Iraq, the Kurdish Democratic
Party, headed by Masoud Barzani, rivals the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan of
Jalal Talabani and many other smaller political groups. These political factions
have been engaged in bitter civil war in Iraq, and these divisions can carry
over even to the country of resettlement. In Turkey, the main political party
of Kurds is known as the Worker's Party or PKK, which is considered a terrorist
group by Turkey because of its fiercely pro-independence stance.
Before the uprising of
Kurds in Iraq in 1990-91, people in cities and some from the countryside could
access regional Government hospitals in Northern Iraq or even Baghdad. However,
more recently, with political events in Iraq, even the modern hospitals suffer
chronic shortages of medicines and supplies. In villages, Western health care
continues to be rudimentary at best; for example, children from these areas
rarely receive childhood immunizations.
Kurdish Home Remedies
In terms of non-Western
or traditional remedies in Kurdistan, there are shops that sell different
herbs, with the proprietors knowledgeable of treatments. However, there are
only a few herbal treatments, for such conditions as stomach problems and
kidney stones. For the latter, there are certain tree leaves that are made
into tea and taken on an empty stomach before breakfast. For fainting, which
is believed to be brought on by a spirit, a raw onion is held under the nose,
and also black ash may be applied to the forehead and cheeks. There are some
leaves which grow wild that people put on wounds, described as a thick leaf
with liquid inside. One can also put snow on the wounded area to stop bleeding
and pain.
We learned of very few
folk treatments for children. For fever, for example, only cold wet towels
are used, together with a hand fan. In general, for treatment of diarrhea
one gives soup or rice water, but withholds fats, meat and cheese, tomatoes,
and grapes. Raisins and yogurt, mixed with crushed ice or snow are also given
for diarrhea.
There is a curious folk
illness in children, with the symptoms of severe abdominal pain, decreased
appetite, and back inflexibility. The belief is that umbilicus "falls
down" into the abdomen. Certain women have the ability to cure this illness
by holding the child upside down and slapping the bottom of the feet. A similar
hernia-like condition can affect adults, where the umbilicus is believed to
be "dislocated" from lifting heavy objects or other strenuous work.
A specialist can right the problem walking on the abdomen or vigorously massaging
the abdomen by hand. This treatment is not considered a cure, however, as
the condition returns. One other illness that some specialists know how to
cure is a broken or dislocated coccyx, described as "bent," which
can be straightened through rectal digital manipulation.
Out of superstition,
people may hide a pretty baby, to protect it from an "evil eye,"
which was described as like "electricity" that comes from eye of
someone who covets one's belongings. Even a car or horse may be hidden for
this reason. When a child or adult is believed to be suffering from the cast
of "evil eye," an Imam can be called for a blessing.
While there do not appear
to be any traditional healers in Kurdish culture (except for those specific
treatments noted above), the ranking Islamic figure, the Imam, is seen to
have curative power through his spirituality. For example, if a child goes
out at night and is frightened be evil spirits, the Imam can rid the child
of fear through a blessing. Also, there is a charm, a quarter-sized piece
of lead, on which the Imam writes or scratches, something short like "Muhammad,"
and on the other side "Allah." This is only for babies and children,
to provide protection from evil spirits.
Similarly, the Imam is particularly sought after for a certain childhood affliction,
"alamk" from evil spirits, which is detected by rapid pulse
in the neck and legs, headache, decreased appetite, and pallor. The Imam (or
other knowledgeable laypersons) checks the pulse, recites appropriate verses
from the Koran, and then blows air on the patient.
There is also a type
of amulet for children and adults. The Imam writes verses from the Koran,
especially verses dealing with spirits, folds the long strip of paper into
a triangle, and puts it in a blue envelope (black for adults). It is not opened
but rather hung from a string around the neck. Or, for headache treatment,
it can be worn under the scarf, called "nevished." These
amulets are very commonly worn by people with mental problems, in which case
it is worn under the clothing. The Imam receives payment for these amulets,
although sometimes he says God will pay him in the other world.
There is also a larger
version, "basband," which provides protection from bullets
and other dangerous things. It is put in leather for protection from water
and sweat. Basband may be used to protect travelers going through unknown
areas or places with bad spirits at night. Furthermore, its properties last
indefinitely.
Birthing,
Child-rearing, and Aging
We learned of no food
prescriptions or proscriptions for pregnancy. There is a generalized Islamic
taboo against the sexing of a child ("only God should know"), but
some old women say that a more rounded abdomen in pregnancy means a female
baby.
A midwife generally assists
with birth and cuts the umbilical cord, the stump of which is then tied with
a string. Until it falls off, the stump is kept clean with a crushed seed
mixture (sometimes also mixed with onions), that the mother changes several
times a day. In the postpartum, after 40 days, there is a special bath, in
which lead mixed in water is poured over the woman to relieve her from bad
spirits. There is a postpartum sexual taboo until that time.
While birth control was
considered in violation of Islamic law in Kurdistan, this view is changing
as some younger married Kurdish women are accepting birth control, especially
the IUD and the pill; and we know of tubal ligations being requested by some
women. Alternatively, infertility is a growing concern for young couples in
the West, as a high social value is placed on having children. To this extent,
we know of several young couples who are attending an infertility clinic.
This is a gray area for Islamic law.
According to one Kurdish
informant, infertility treatments that involve laboratory conception are acceptable.
Pregnancy outside of wedlock is still strictly taboo at this point. Abortion
is considered in extreme violation of Islamic law and Kurdish culture.
In Kurdistan villages,
most babies were delivered by midwives; in the U.S., midwives are known among
the community, but provide little more than comfort to the pregnant women.
Husbands here commonly accompany their wives to the delivery room.
Virtually all newborns were breastfed in Kurdistan, for at least one year and sometimes longer. Weaning would always occur at subsequent conception, the belief being the milk in pregnancy not healthy for the nursing child. Here breastfeeding is still common for Kurdish women, but mixed feeding with formula and bottles is becoming common among those women who work.
Breastfeeding women typically
cover themselves with a scarf in public. Manual expression of milk is not
considered appropriate. For childrearing, since there is an emphasis on large
families, much of the responsibility for toddlers lies with older sisters
and grandmothers. Older boys are not typically involved in childcare. In general,
female children are much more supervised than males.
Elders in general are
afforded great respect in Kurdish culture. In Islam, one is directed to afford
the same care to one's aged parents as they gave in childhood. There is an
Islamic expression that says, "If the parents do not forgive you, Allah
will not forgive you." There is a Kurdish tradition that family gathers
around a dying parent to ask for forgiveness.
End-of-life
At death, the body is
ritually washed by a Imam (for a male) or a devout older woman for females
(who works under the direction of an Imam, reciting the correct Koranic verses,
and the like) and covered with a white sheet, fitted to the body. This is
typically done at a mosque but can be performed at a funeral home here. The
body is then buried as soon as possible, typically the same day. The body
is placed in the grave so that the head faces Mecca. At burial, family and
friends gather, and the Imam recites from the Koran. Others read from the
Koran as well, in the name of the deceased. In Kurdistan, a tape of certain
verses from the Koran would be played continuously over loudspeakers. The
funeral party then returns to the house of the deceased for prayers and a
feast.
For at least three days to one week, the family stays at home to accept visitors. After seven days, the family prepares another feast for friends and villagers in order again to ask forgiveness for the deceased's past transgressions. This is followed by weekly graveyard visit to show respect and love, and a picture of the deceased is hung in the home. The holiday of Eid is also a time to visit the grave.
Health Risks in Refugees from the Middle East (Also see Infectious Diseases site for updates and details on diseases)
- Thalassemia
- Schistosomiasis
- Parasites (hookworm, amoebae, echinococcosis)
- Leprosy
- Tuberculosis
- PTSD
Recommended Laboratory and Other Tests for Refugees from the Middle East
- Nutritional assessment
- Stool for ova and parasites
- PPD
Hepatitis B surface antigen and hemoglobin or hematocrit should be considered.
This chapter based on original work by L. Rasbridge